Hippocampal adaptations in Mild Cognitive Impairment patients are modulated by bilingual language experiences

Downloads

Albert, M. S., DeKosky, S. T., Dickson, D., Dubois, B., Feldman, H. H., Fox, N. C., Gamst, A., Holtzman, D. M., Jagust, W. J., Petersen, R. C., Snyder, P. J., Carrillo, M. C., Thies, B., & Phelps, C. H. (2011). The diagnosis of mild cognitive impairment due to Alzheimer’s disease: Recommendations from the National Institute on Aging‐Alzheimer’s Association workgroups on diagnostic guidelines for Alzheimer’s disease. Alzheimer’s & Dementia, 7(3), 270–279. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jalz.2011.03.008 Alladi, S., Bak, T. H., Duggirala, V., Surampudi, B., Shailaja, M., Shukla, A. K., Chaudhuri, J. R., & Kaul, S. (2013). Bilingualism delays age at onset of dementia, indipendent of education and immigration status. Neurology, 81, 1938–1944. https://doi.org/10.1212/01.WNL.0000437347.92583.fc Anderson, J. A. E., Hawrylewicz, K., & Grundy, J. G. (2020). Does bilingualism protect against dementia? A meta-analysis. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13423-020-01736-5 Arevalo-Rodriguez, I., Smailagic, N., Roqué-Figuls, M., Ciapponi, A., Sanchez-Perez, E., Giannakou, A., Pedraza, O. L., Cosp, X. B., & Cullum, S. (2021). Mini‐Mental State Examination (MMSE) for the early detection of dementia in people with mild cognitive impairment (MCI). Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, 7. https://doi.org/10.1002/14651858.CD010783.pub3 Berens, S. C., Horst, J. S., & Bird, C. M. (2018). Cross-Situational Learning Is Supported by Propose-but-Verify Hypothesis Testing. Current Biology, 28(7), 1132-1136.e5. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2018.02.042 Berkes, M., Bialystok, E., Craik, F. I. M., Troyer, A., & Freedman, M. (2020). Conversion of Mild Cognitive Impairment to Alzheimer Disease in Monolingual and Bilingual Patients. Alzheimer Disease and Associated Disorders, 00(00), 1–6. https://doi.org/10.1097/WAD.0000000000000373 Berkes, M., Calvo, N., Anderson, J. A. E., & Bialystok, E. (2021). Poorer clinical outcomes for older adult monolinguals when matched to bilinguals on brain health. Brain Structure and Function, 226(2), 415–424. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00429-020-02185-5 Bialystok, E. (2017). The bilingual adaptation: How minds accommodate experience. Psychological Bulletin, 143(3), 233–262. https://doi.org/10.1037/bul0000099 Bialystok, E. (2021). Bilingualism: Pathway to Cognitive Reserve. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 1–10. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2021.02.003 Bialystok, E., Abutalebi, J., Bak, T. H., Burke, D. M., & Kroll, J. F. (2016). Aging in two languages: Implications for public health. Ageing Research Reviews. Bialystok, E., & Craik, F. I. M. (2022). How does bilingualism modify cognitive function? Attention to the mechanism. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 0123456789. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13423-022-02057-5 Bialystok, E., Craik, F. I. M., Binns, M. A., Ossher, L., & Freedman, M. (2014). Effects of bilingualism on the age of onset and progression of MCI and AD: Evidence from executive function tests. Neuropsychology, 28(2), 290–304. https://doi.org/10.1037/neu0000023 Bialystok, E., Craik, F. I. M., & Freedman, M. (2007). Bilingualism as a protection against the onset of symptoms of dementia. Neuropsychologia, 45(2), 459–464. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2006.10.009 Bialystok, E., Craik, F. I. M., Klein, R., & Viswanathan, M. (2004). Bilingualism, Aging, and Cognitive Control: Evidence From the Simon Task. Psychology and Aging, 19(2), 290–303. https://doi.org/10.1037/0882-7974.19.2.290 Brini, S., Sohrabi, H. R., Hebert, J. J., Forrest, M. R. L., Laine, M., Hämäläinen, H., Karrasch, M., Peiffer, J. J., Martins, R. N., & Fairchild, T. J. (2020). Bilingualism Is Associated with a Delayed Onset of Dementia but Not with a Lower Risk of Developing it: A Systematic Review with Meta-Analyses. Neuropsychology Review, 30(1), 1–24. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11065-020-09426-8 Calabria, M., Hernández, M., Cattaneo, G., Suades, A., Serra, M., Juncadella, M., Reñé, R., Sala, I., Lleó, A., Ortiz-Gil, J., Ugas, L., Ávila, A., Ruiz, I. G., Ávila, C., & Costa, A. (2020). Active bilingualism delays the onset of mild cognitive impairment. Neuropsychologia, 146, 107528. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2020.107528 Calabria, M., Pérez Pérez, J., Martínez-Horta, S., Horta-Barba, A., Carceller, M., Kulisevsky, J., & Costa, A. (2021). Language reconfiguration in bilinguals: A study with Huntington’s disease patients. Linguistic Approaches to Bilingualism, 11(4), 459–483. https://doi.org/10.1075/lab.18022.cal Clare, L., Wu, Y. T., Teale, J. C., MacLeod, C., Matthews, F., Brayne, C., & Woods, B. (2017). Potentially modifiable lifestyle factors, cognitive reserve, and cognitive function in later life: A cross-sectional study. PLoS Medicine, 14(3), 1–14. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pmed.1002259 Collaboratory on Research Definitions for Reserve and Resilience in Cognitive Aging and Dementia. (2022). Framework for Terms Used in the Research of Reserve and Resilience. https://reserveandresilience.com/framework/ Costumero, V., Marin-Marin, L., Calabria, M., Belloch, V., Escudero, J., Baquero, M., Hernandez, M., Ruiz de Miras, J., Costa, A., Parcet, M.-A., & Ávila, C. (2020). A cross-sectional and longitudinal study on the protective effect of bilingualism against dementia using brain atrophy and cognitive measures. Alzheimer’s Research & Therapy, 12(1), 11. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13195-020-0581-1 Craik, F. I. M., Bialystok, E., & Freedman, M. (2010). Delaying the onset of Alzheimer disease: Bilingualism as a form of cognitive reserve. Neurology, 75(19), 1726–1729. https://doi.org/10.1212/WNL.0b013e3181fc2a1c de Bruin, A. (2019). Not All Bilinguals Are the Same: A Call for More Detailed Assessments and Descriptions of Bilingual Experiences. Behavioral Sciences, 9(3), 1–13. https://doi.org/10.3390/BS9030033 DeLuca, V., Rothman, J., Bialystok, E., & Pliatsikas, C. (2019). Redefining bilingualism as a spectrum of experiences that differentially affects brain structure and function. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 116(15), 7565–7574. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1811513116 DeLuca, V., Rothman, J., Bialystok, E., & Pliatsikas, C. (2020). Duration and extent of bilingual experience modulate neurocognitive outcomes. NeuroImage, 204(May 2019), 116222. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2019.116222 DeLuca, V., Rothman, J., & Pliatsikas, C. (2018). Linguistic immersion and structural effects on the bilingual brain: A longitudinal study. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 22(5), 1160–1175. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1366728918000883 DeLuca, V., Segaert, K., Mazaheri, A., & Krott, A. (2020). Understanding bilingual brain function and structure changes? U bet! A unified bilingual experience trajectory model. Journal of Neurolinguistics, 56(July), 100930. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jneuroling.2020.100930 Duncan, H. D., Nikelski, J., Pilon, R., Steffener, J., Chertkow, H., & Phillips, N. A. (2018). Structural brain differences between monolingual and multilingual patients with mild cognitive impairment and Alzheimer disease: Evidence for cognitive reserve. Neuropsychologia, 109(October 2017), 270–282. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2017.12.036 Fischl, B., Liu, A., & Dale, A. M. (2001). Automated manifold surgery: Constructing geometrically accurate and topologically correct models of the human cerebral cortex. IEEE Transactions on Medical Imaging, 20(1), 70–80. https://doi.org/10.1109/42.906426 Fischl, B., Salat, D. H., Busa, E., Albert, M., Dieterich, M., Haselgrove, C., van der Kouwe, A., Killiany, R., Kennedy, D., Klaveness, S., Montillo, A., Makris, N., Rosen, B., & Dale, A. M. (2002). Whole Brain Segmentation. Neuron, 33(3), 341–355. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0896-6273(02)00569-X Fischl, B., Salat, D. H., van der Kouwe, A. J. W., Makris, N., Ségonne, F., Quinn, B. T., & Dale, A. M. (2004). Sequence-independent segmentation of magnetic resonance images. NeuroImage, 23(3), S69–S84. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2004.07.016 Fjell, A. M., Walhovd, K. B., Fennema-Notestine, C., McEvoy, L. K., Hagler, D. J., Holland, D., Brewer, J. B., & Dale, A. M. (2009). One-year brain atrophy evident in healthy aging. Journal of Neuroscience, 29(48), 15223–15231. https://doi.org/10.1523/JNEUROSCI.3252-09.2009 Fleck, J. I., Kuti, J., Mercurio, J., Mullen, S., Austin, K., & Pereira, O. (2017). The impact of age and cognitive reserve on resting-state brain connectivity. Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience, 9(DEC), 1–13. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnagi.2017.00392 Folstein, M. F., Folstein, S. E., & McHugh, P. R. (1975). “Mini-mental state.” Journal of Psychiatric Research, 12(3), 189–198. https://doi.org/10.1016/0022-3956(75)90026-6 Fotuhi, M., Do, D., & Jack, C. (2012). Modifiable factors that alter the size of the hippocampus with ageing. Nature Reviews Neurology, 8(4), 189–202. https://doi.org/10.1038/nrneurol.2012.27 Foubert-Samier, A., Catheline, G., Amieva, H., Dilharreguy, B., Helmer, C., Allard, M., & Dartigues, J. F. (2012). Education, occupation, leisure activities, and brain reserve: A population-based study. Neurobiology of Aging, 33(2), 423.e15-423.e25. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neurobiolaging.2010.09.023 Fox, N. C., & Schott, J. M. (2004). Imaging cerebral atrophy: Normal ageing to Alzheimer’s disease. The Lancet, 363(9406), 392–394. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(04)15441-X Gallo, F., DeLuca, V., Prystauka, Y., Voits, T., Rothman, J., & Abutalebi, J. (2022). Bilingualism and Aging: Implications for (Delaying) Neurocognitive Decline. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 16(February), 1–15. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2022.819105 Gauthier, S., Reisberg, B., Zaudig, M., Petersen, R. C., Ritchie, K., Broich, K., Belleville, S., Brodaty, H., Bennett, D., Chertkow, H., Cummings, J. L., de Leon, M., Feldman, H., Ganguli, M., Hampel, H., Scheltens, P., Tierney, M. C., Whitehouse, P., & Winblad, B. (2006). Mild cognitive impairment. The Lancet, 367(9518), 1262–1270. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(06)68542-5 Green, D. W. (1998). Mental control of the bilingual lexico-semantic system. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 1(02), 67. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1366728998000133 Green, D. W., & Abutalebi, J. (2013). Language control in bilinguals: The adaptive control hypothesis. Journal of Cognitive Psychology, 25(5), 515–530. https://doi.org/10.1080/20445911.2013.796377 Gullifer, J., & Titone, D. (2018). Compute language entropy with {languageEntropy}. https://doi.org/10.5281/ZENODO.1403272 Gullifer, J. W., Chai, X. J., Whitford, V., Pivneva, I., Baum, S., Klein, D., & Titone, D. (2018). Bilingual experience and resting-state brain connectivity: Impacts of L2 age of acquisition and social diversity of language use on control networks. Neuropsychologia, 117(April 2017), 123–134. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2018.04.037 Gullifer, J. W., & Titone, D. (2020). Characterizing the social diversity of bilingualism using language entropy. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 23(2), 283–294. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1366728919000026 Han, X., Jovicich, J., Salat, D., van der Kouwe, A., Quinn, B., Czanner, S., Busa, E., Pacheco, J., Albert, M., Killiany, R., Maguire, P., Rosas, D., Makris, N., Dale, A., Dickerson, B., & Fischl, B. (2006). Reliability of MRI-derived measurements of human cerebral cortical thickness: The effects of field strength, scanner upgrade and manufacturer. NeuroImage, 32(1), 180–194. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2006.02.051 Kelley, B. J., & Petersen, R. C. (2007). Alzheimer’s Disease and Mild Cognitive Impairment. Neurologic Clinics, 25(3), 577–609. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ncl.2007.03.008 Korenar, M., Treffers-daller, J., & Pliatsikas, C. (2021). Bilingual experiences induce dynamic structural changes to basal ganglia and the thalamus (preprint). Research Square, 1–20. Kroll, J. F., & Bialystok, E. (2013). Understanding the consequences of bilingualism for language processing and cognition. Journal of Cognitive Psychology, 25(5), 497–514. https://doi.org/10.1080/20445911.2013.799170 Leivada, E., Duñabeitia, J. A., Westergaard, M., Rothman, J., Duñabeitia, J. A., & Rothman, J. (2020). On the phantom-like appearance of bilingualism effects on cognition: (How) should we proceed? Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, May, 1–14. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1366728920000358 Ljungberg, J. K., Hansson, P., Adolfsson, R., & Nilsson, L.-G. (2016). The effect of language skills on dementia in a Swedish longitudinal cohort. Linguistic Approaches to Bilingualism, 6(1–2), 190–204. https://doi.org/10.1075/lab.14031.lju Luk, G., & Bialystok, E. (2013). Bilingualism is not a categorical variable: Interaction between language proficiency and usage. Journal of Cognitive Psychology, 25(5), 605–621. https://doi.org/10.1080/20445911.2013.795574 Marian, V., & Spivey, M. (2003). Competing activation in bilingual language processing: Within- and between-language competition. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 6(2), S1366728903001068. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1366728903001068 Marin-Marin, L., Costumero, V., Ávila, C., & Pliatsikas, C. (2022). Dynamic Effects of Immersive Bilingualism on Cortical and Subcortical Grey Matter Volumes. Frontiers in Psychology, 13(April), 1–11. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.886222 Marin-Marin, L., Costumero, V., Belloch, V., Escudero, J., Baquero, M., Parcet, M. A., & Ávila, C. (2019). Effects of bilingualism on white matter atrophy in mild cognitive impairment: A diffusion tensor imaging study. European Journal of Neurology, Md, 1–6. https://doi.org/10.1111/ene.14135 Marin-Marin, L., Palomar-García, M.-Á., Miró-Padilla, A., Adrián-Ventura, J., Aguirre, N., Villar-Rodríguez, E., & Costumero, V. (2021). Bilingualism’s Effects on Resting-State Functional Connectivity in Mild Cognitive Impairment. Brain Connectivity, 11(1), 30–37. https://doi.org/10.1089/brain.2020.0877 Mårtensson, J., Eriksson, J., Christian, N., Lindgren, M., Johansson, M., Nyberg, L., Lövdén, M., Bodammer, N. C., Lindgren, M., Johansson, M., Nyberg, L., Lövdén, M., Christian, N., Lindgren, M., Johansson, M., Nyberg, L., & Lövdén, M. (2012). Growth of language-related brain areas after foreign language learning. NeuroImage, 63(1), 240–244. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2012.06.043 McKhann, G. M., Knopman, D. S., Chertkow, H., Hyman, B. T., Jack, C. R., Kawas, C. H., Klunk, W. E., Koroshetz, W. J., Manly, J. J., Mayeux, R., Mohs, R. C., Morris, J. C., Rossor, M. N., Scheltens, P., Carrillo, M. C., Thies, B., Weintraub, S., & Phelps, C. H. (2011). The diagnosis of dementia due to Alzheimer’s disease: Recommendations from the National Institute on Aging-Alzheimer’s Association workgroups on diagnostic guidelines for Alzheimer’s disease. Alzheimer’s & Dementia, 7(3), 263–269. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jalz.2011.03.005 Mendez, M. F. (2019). Bilingualism and Dementia: Cognitive Reserve to Linguistic Competency. Journal of Alzheimer’s Disease, 1–12. https://doi.org/10.3233/jad-190397 Morris, J. C., Heyman, A., Mohs, R. C., Hughes, J. P., van Belle, G., Fillenbaum, G., Mellits, E. D., & Clark, C. (1989). The Consortium to Establish a Registry for Alzheimer’s Disease (CERAD). Part I. Clinical and neuropsychological assesment of Alzheimer’s disease. Neurology, 39(9), 1159–1159. https://doi.org/10.1212/WNL.39.9.1159 Mukadam, N., Sommerlad, A., & Livingston, G. (2017). The Relationship of Bilingualism Compared to Monolingualism to the Risk of Cognitive Decline or Dementia: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Journal of Alzheimer’s Disease, 58(1), 45–54. https://doi.org/10.3233/JAD-170131 Nucci, M., Mapelli, D., & Mondini, S. (2012). Cognitive Reserve Index questionnaire (CRIq): A new instrument for measuring cognitive reserve. Aging Clinical and Experimental Research Exp Res, 24(3), 218–226. https://doi.org/10.3275/7800 O’Shea, A., Cohen, R. A., Porges, E. C., Nissim, N. R., & Woods, A. J. (2016). Cognitive aging and the hippocampus in older adults. Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience, 8(DEC), 1–8. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnagi.2016.00298 Ossher, L., Bialystok, E., Craik, F. I. M., Murphy, K. J., & Troyer, A. K. (2013). The Effect of Bilingualism on Amnestic Mild Cognitive Impairment. The Journals of Gerontology: Series B, 68(1), 8–12. https://doi.org/10.1093/geronb/gbs038 Pandya, S. Y., Clem, M. A., Silva, L. M., & Woon, F. L. (2016). Does mild cognitive impairment always lead to dementia? A review. Journal of the Neurological Sciences, 369, 57–62. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jns.2016.07.055 Paulavicius, A. M., Mizzaci, C. C., Tavares, D. R. B., Rocha, A. P., Civile, V. T., Schultz, R. R., Pinto, A. C. P. N., & Trevisani, V. F. M. (2020). Bilingualism for delaying the onset of Alzheimer’s disease: A systematic review and meta-analysis. European Geriatric Medicine, 0123456789. https://doi.org/10.1007/s41999-020-00326-x Pena-Casanova, J., Quinones-Ubeda, S., Quintana-Aparicio, M., Aguilar, M., Badenes, D., Molinuevo, J. L., Torner, L., Robles, A., Barquero, M. S., Villanueva, C., Antunez, C., Martinez-Parra, C., Frank-Garcia, A., Sanz, A., Fernandez, M., Alfonso, V., Sol, J. M., Blesa, R., & for the NEURONORMA Study Team. (2009). Spanish Multicenter Normative Studies (NEURONORMA Project): Norms for Verbal Span, Visuospatial Span, Letter and Number Sequencing, Trail Making Test, and Symbol Digit Modalities Test. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 24(4), 321–341. https://doi.org/10.1093/arclin/acp038 Persson, J., Pudas, S., Lind, J., Kauppi, K., Nilsson, L. G., & Nyberg, L. (2012). Longitudinal structure-function correlates in elderly reveal MTL dysfunction with cognitive decline. Cerebral Cortex, 22(10), 2297–2304. https://doi.org/10.1093/cercor/bhr306 Pliatsikas, C. (2020). Understanding structural plasticity in the bilingual brain: The Dynamic Restructuring Model. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 23(2), 459–471. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1366728919000130 R Core Team. (2021). R: A Language and Environment for Statistical Computing. R Foundation for Statistical Computing. http://www.r-project.org/ Ramakrishnan, S., Mekala, S., Mamidipudi, A., Yareeda, S., Mridula, R., Bak, T. H., Alladi, S., & Kaul, S. (2017). Comparative Effects of Education and Bilingualism on the Onset of Mild Cognitive Impairment. Dementia and Geriatric Cognitive Disorders, 44(3–4), 222–231. https://doi.org/10.1159/000479791 Reuter, M., Schmansky, N. J., Rosas, H. D., & Fischl, B. (2012). Within-subject template estimation for unbiased longitudinal image analysis. NeuroImage, 61(4), 1402–1418. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2012.02.084 Rosselli, M., Loewenstein, D. A., Curiel, R. E., Penate, A., Torres, V. L., Lang, M., Greig, M. T., Barker, W. W., & Duara, R. (2019). Effects of Bilingualism on Verbal and Nonverbal Memory Measures in Mild Cognitive Impairment. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 25(1), 15–28. https://doi.org/10.1017/S135561771800070X Rothman, J., Bayram, F., DeLuca, V., Di Pisa, G., Duñabeitia, J. A., Gharibi, K., Hao, J., Kolb, N., Kubota, M., Kupisch, T., Laméris, T., Luque, A., van Osch, B., Pereira Soares, S. M., Prystauka, Y., Tat, D., Tomić, A., Voits, T., & Wulff, S. (2022). Monolingual comparative normativity in bilingualism research is out of “ control ”: Arguments and alternatives. Applied Psycholinguistics, 1–14. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0142716422000315 Schweizer, T. A., Ware, J., Fischer, C. E., Craik, F. I. M. M., & Bialystok, E. (2012). Bilingualism as a contributor to cognitive reserve: Evidence from brain atrophy in Alzheimer’s disease. Cortex, 48(8), 991–996. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cortex.2011.04.009 Ségonne, F., Dale, A. M., Busa, E., Glessner, M., Salat, D., Hahn, H. K., & Fischl, B. (2004). A hybrid approach to the skull stripping problem in MRI. NeuroImage, 22(3), 1060–1075. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2004.03.032 Segonne, F., Pacheco, J., & Fischl, B. (2007). Geometrically Accurate Topology-Correction of Cortical Surfaces Using Nonseparating Loops. IEEE Transactions on Medical Imaging, 26(4), 518–529. https://doi.org/10.1109/TMI.2006.887364 Sled, J. G., Zijdenbos, A. P., & Evans, A. C. (1998). A nonparametric method for automatic correction of intensity nonuniformity in MRI data. IEEE Transactions on Medical Imaging, 17(1), 87–97. https://doi.org/10.1109/42.668698 Stern, Y. (2002). What is cognitive reserve? Theory and research application of the reserve concept. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society : JINS, 8(3), 448–460. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1355617702813248 Stern, Y., Arenaza‐Urquijo, E. M., Bartrés‐Faz, D., Belleville, S., Cantilon, M., Chetelat, G., Ewers, M., Franzmeier, N., Kempermann, G., Kremen, W. S., Okonkwo, O., Scarmeas, N., Soldan, A., Udeh‐Momoh, C., Valenzuela, M., Vemuri, P., & Vuoksimaa, E. (2020). Whitepaper: Defining and investigating cognitive reserve, brain reserve, and brain maintenance. Alzheimer’s & Dementia, 16(9), 1305–1311. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jalz.2018.07.219 Stern, Y., Barnes, C. A., Grady, C., Jones, R. N., & Raz, N. (2019). Brain reserve, cognitive reserve, compensation, and maintenance: Operationalization, validity, and mechanisms of cognitive resilience. Neurobiology of Aging, 83, 124–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neurobiolaging.2019.03.022 Titone, D. A., & Tiv, M. (2022). Rethinking multilingual experience through a Systems Framework of Bilingualism. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 4, 1–16. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1366728921001127 Van den Noort, M., Vermeire, K., Bosch, P., Staudte, H., Krajenbrink, T., Jaswetz, L., Struys, E., Yeo, S., Barisch, P., Perriard, B., Lee, S.-H., & Lim, S. (2019). A Systematic Review on the Possible Relationship Between Bilingualism, Cognitive Decline, and the Onset of Dementia. Behavioral Sciences, 9(7), 81. https://doi.org/10.3390/bs9070081 Voits, T., Pliatsikas, C., Robson, H., & Rothman, J. (2020). Beyond Alzheimer’s disease: Can bilingualism be a more generalized protective factor in neurodegeneration? Neuropsychologia, 147(April), 107593. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2020.107593 Voits, T., Robson, H., Rothman, J., & Pliatsikas, C. (2022). The effects of bilingualism on hippocampal volume in ageing bilinguals. Brain Structure and Function. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00429-021-02436-z Wilson, R. S., Boyle, P. A., Yang, J., James, B. D., & Bennett, D. A. (2015). Early life instruction in foreign language and music and incidence of mild cognitive impairment. Neuropsychology, 29(2), 292–302. https://doi.org/10.1037/neu0000129 Wood, S. N. (2017). Generalized Additive Models. Chapman and Hall/CRC. https://doi.org/10.1201/9781315370279 Woumans, E., Santens, P., Sieben, A., Versijpt, J., Stevens, M., & Duyck, W. (2015). Bilingualism delays clinical manifestation of Alzheimer’s disease. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 18(3), 568–574. https://doi.org/doi:10.1017/S136672891400087X. Zheng, Y., Wu, Q., Su, F., Fang, Y., Zeng, J., & Pei, Z. (2018). The Protective Effect of Cantonese/Mandarin Bilingualism on the Onset of Alzheimer Disease. Dementia and Geriatric Cognitive Disorders, 45(3–4), 210–219. https://doi.org/10.1159/000488485